Phospholipase D‐ and phosphatidic acid‐mediated phospholipid metabolism and signaling modulate symbiotic interaction and nodulation in soybean ( Glycine max )

Symbiotic rhizobium–legume interactions, such as root hair curling, rhizobial invasion, infection thread expansion, cell division and proliferation of nitrogen-fixing bacteroids, and nodule formation, involve extensive membrane synthesis, lipid remodeling and cytoskeleton dynamics. However, little is known about these membrane–cytoskeleton interfaces and related genes. Here, we report the roles of a major root phospholipase D (PLD), PLDα1, and its enzymatic product, phosphatidic acid (PA), in rhizobium–root interaction and nodulation. PLDα1 was activated and the PA content transiently increased in roots after rhizobial infection. Levels of  PLDα1  transcript and PA, as well as actin and tubulin cytoskeleton-related gene expression, changed markedly during root–rhizobium interactions and nodule development. Pre-treatment of the roots of soybean seedlings with  n -butanol suppressed the generation of PLD-derived PA, the expression of early nodulation genes and nodule numbers. Overexpression or knockdown of  GmPLDα1  resulted in changes in PA levels, glycerolipid profiles, nodule numbers, actin cytoskeleton dynamics, early nodulation gene expression and hormone levels upon rhizobial infection compared with GUS roots. The transcript levels of cytoskeleton-related genes, such as  GmACTIN ,  GmTUBULIN , actin capping protein 1 ( GmCP1 ) and microtubule-associating protein ( GmMAP1 ), were modified in  GmPLDα1- altered hairy roots compared with those of GUS roots. Phosphatidic acid physically bound to GmCP1 and GmMAP1, which could be related to cytoskeletal changes in rhizobium-infected  GmPLDα1  mutant roots. These data suggest that PLDα1 and PA play important roles in soybean–rhizobium interaction and nodulation. The possible underlying mechanisms, including PLDα1- and PA-mediated lipid signaling, membrane remodeling, cytoskeleton dynamics and related hormone signaling, are discussed herein.